ISSN-L: 0798-1015   •   eISSN: 2739-0071 (En línea)

Vol. 45 (Nº 06) Año 2024. Art. 7

Recibido/Received: 05/10/2024 • Aprobado/Approuved: 10/11/2024 • Publicado/Published: 30/11/2024
DOI: 10.48082/espacios-a24v45n06p07

Challenging stereotypes in Mexico: Impact on university students' entrepreneurial intentions

Desafiando los Estereotipos en México: Impacto en las Intenciones Emprendedoras de Estudiantes Universitarios

AGUILAR, Pedro D. 1
PEREZ, Anna 2
CAMPOS, Alejandro 3

Abstract
This study examines how gender stereotypes influence the entrepreneurial intentions of university students in Mexico. Through a survey of 399 students at the University of Guadalajara, the research reveals that traits traditionally viewed as masculine, such as leadership and risk-taking, are positively associated with entrepreneurial intentions, while feminine traits show a negative correlation. The findings highlight the need for policies that promote gender equity, challenging prevailing stereotypes to foster a more inclusive and diverse entrepreneurial environment.
Key words: higher education, gender stereotypes, entrepreneurial intentions

Resumen
Este estudio examina cómo los estereotipos de género influyen en las intenciones emprendedoras de estudiantes universitarios en México. A través de una encuesta a 399 estudiantes de la Universidad de Guadalajara, la investigación revela que los rasgos tradicionalmente considerados masculinos, como el liderazgo y la toma de riesgos, se asocian positivamente con las intenciones emprendedoras, mientras que los rasgos femeninos muestran una correlación negativa. Los hallazgos resaltan la necesidad de políticas que promuevan la equidad de género, desafiando los estereotipos existentes para fomentar un entorno emprendedor más inclusivo y diverso.
Palabras clave: educación superior, estereotipos de genero, intención emprendedora

ARTÍCULO COMPLETO/FULL ARTICLE

References

Abele, A. E. (2003). The dynamics of masculine-agentic and feminine-communal traits: Findings from a prospective study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(4), 768–776. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.4.768

Adamus, M., Cavojová, V. y Srol, J. (2021). The Impact of Stereotyped Perceptions of Entrepreneurship and Gender- Role Orientation on Slovak Women’s Entrepreneurial Intentions. Gender in Management, 36(6), 745–76. https://doi.org/10.1108/GM-06-2020-0179

Adom, K. y Anambane G. (2020). Understanding the role of culture and gender stereotypes in women entrepreneurship through the lens of the stereotype threat theory. Journal of Entrepreneurial in Emerging Economies, 12(1), 100-124. https://doi.org/10.1108/JEEE-07-2018-0070

Ahl, H. (2006). Why research on women entrepreneurs needs new directions. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 30(5). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2006.00138.x

Angulo, R. (2024). Las seis dimensiones de la cultura nacional en México. LinkedIn. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/las-seis-dimensiones-de-la-cultura-nacional-en-m%C3%A9xico-angulo-sillas/

Arshad, M., Farooq, M., Atif, M. y Farooq, O. (2021). A motivational theory perspective on entrepreneurial intentions: a gender comparative study. Gender in Management, 36(2), 221-240. https://doi.org/10.1108/GM-12-2019-0253

Barba-Sánchez, V., Mitre-Aranda, M. & del Brío-González, J. (2022). The entrepreneurial intention of university students: An environmental perspective. European Research on Management and Business Economics, 28(2). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iedeen.2021.100184

BarNir, A (2021). To Venture or Not to Venture? Gender Stereotyping and Women’s Entrepreneurial Aspirations. Sex Roles, 85, 57–72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-020-01204-3

Batista-Canino, R., Santana-Hernández, L. & Medina-Brito, P. (2024). A holistic literature review on entrepreneurial Intention: A scientometric approach. Journal of Business Research, 174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2023.114480

Bem, S. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42(2), 155-162. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0036215

Bolukbasi T., Chang K., y Zou J., Saligrama V., y Kalai A. (2016). Man is to computer programmer as woman is to homemaker? Debiasing word embeddings. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 4356–4364. http://arxiv.org/abs/1607.06520

Camelo-Ordaz, C. y Diánez-Gonzalez, J. (2016). The influence of gender on entrepreneurial intention: The mediating role of perceptual factors. BRQ Business Research Quarterly, 19(4), 261-277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brq.2016.03.001

Charlesworth T., Yang V., Mann T., Kurdi B., y Banaji M. (2021). Gender stereotypes in natural language: Word embeddings show robust consistency across child and adult language corpora of 65+ million words. Psychological Science. 32(2), 218-240. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797620963619

Charlesworth, T., y Banaji, M. (2022). Patterns of Implicit and Explicit Stereotypes III. Long-Term Change in Gender Stereotypes. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 13(1), 14-26. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550620988425

Cuddy A., Fiske S., y Glick, P. (2004). When professionals become mothers, warmth doesn’t cut the ice. Journal of Social Issues, 60, 701–718. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-4537.2004.00381.x

Drydakis, N., Sidiropoulous, K., Bozani, V., Selmanovic, S. y Patnaik, S. (2018). Masculine vs feminine personality traits and women´s employment outcomes in Britain: A field experiment. International Journal of Manpower, 39(4), 621-630. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJM-09-2017-0255

Eagly, A. H. (1987). Sex Differences in Social Behavior: A Social-Role Interpretation. Lawrance Erlbaum Associates.

Eagly, A. H. (1997). Sex differences in social behavior: Comparing social role theory and evolutionary psychology. American Psychologist, 52(12), 1380–1383. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.52.12.1380.b

Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review, 109(3), 573-598. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.109.3.573

Eagly, A., Wood, W., y Diekman, A. (2000). Social role theory of sex differences and similarities: A current appraisal. En T. Eckes & H. Trautner (Eds.), The developmental social psychology of gender (pp. 123–174). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

Eisend, M. (2019). Gender roles. Journal of Advertising, 48, 72-80. https://doi.org/10.1080/00913367.2019.1566103

Ellemers, N. (2018). Gender Stereotypes. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 275-298. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev- psych- 122216- 011719

Endendijk, J., Droeneveld, M., van Berkel, S., Hallers-Haalboom, E., Mesman, J., y Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. (2013). Gender Stereotypes in the Family Context: Mothers, Fathers, and Siblings. Sex Roles, 68, 577-590. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-013-0265-4

Garg N., Schiebinger L., Jurafsky D., y Zou J. (2018). Word embeddings quantify 100 years of gender and ethnic stereotypes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 115(16), E3635–E3644. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1720347115

González, M., Cortina, C., y Rodriguez, J. (2019). The Role of Gender Stereotypes in Hiring: A Field Experiment. European Sociology Review, 35(2), 187-204. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcy055

Gupta, V., Wieland, A. y Turban, D. (2019). Gender Characterizations in Entrepreneurship: A Multi‐Level Investigation of Sex‐Role Stereotypes about High‐Growth, Commercial, and Social Entrepreneurs. Journal of Small Business Management, 57(1), 131–153. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12495

Haines E., Deaux K., y Lofaro N. (2016). The times they are a-changing…or are they not? A comparison of gender stereotypes, 1983–2014. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(3), 353–363. https://doi.org/10.1177/03616843166340

Heilman, M., Wallen, A., Fuchs, D., & Tamkins, M. (2004). Penalties for Success: Reactions to Women Who Succeed at Male Gender-Typed Tasks. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(3), 416–427. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.89.3.416

Hentschel, T., Heilman, M. & Peus, C. (2019). The multiple dimensions of gender stereotypes: A current look at men’s and women’s characterizations of others and themselves. Frontiers in Psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00011

Hentschel, T., Heilman, M., y Peus, C. (2019). The Multiple Dimensions of Gender Stereotypes: A Current Look at Men’s and Women’s Characterizations of Others and Themselves. Frontiers in Psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00011

Higgins E., y Bargh J. (1987). Social cognition and social perception. Annual Review of Psychology, 38(1), 369–425. https://doi.org/0066-4308/87/0201-0369

Kari, A. (s.f.). Gender and Health. World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/health-topics/gender#tab=tab_1

Koenig, A.M., & Eagly, A.H. (2014). Evidence for the social role theory of stereotype content: observations of groups' roles shape stereotypes. Journal of personality and social psychology, 107 3, 371-392. https://doi.org/10.1037/a003721z

Kollmayer, M., Schober, B., y Spiel, C. (2016). Gender stereotypes in education: Development, consequences, and interventions. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 15(4), 361-377. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2016.1193483

Laguía, A., García-Ael, C., Wach, D. y Moriano, J. (2019). “Think entrepreneur - think male”: a task and relationship scale to measure gender stereotypes in entrepreneurship. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, J15, 749-772. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-018-0553-0

Li, C., Bilmoria, D., Wang, Y. y Guo, X. (2020). Gender Role Characteristics and Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy: A comparative Study of Female and male Entrepreneurs in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.585803

Liñan, F. Jaén, I. & Rodríguez, M. (2024). Gender and sex in starting up: a social stereotype approach. Entrepreneurial & Regional Development, 36(3-4), 243-265. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985626.2023.2295266

Liñan, F., Jaén, I., y Martín, D. (2022). Does entrepreneurship fit her? Women entrepreneurs, gender-role orientation, and entrepreneurial culture. Small Business Economics, 58, 1051-1071. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-020-00433-w

Liñan, F., Rodrigiez-Cohard, J. & Rueda-Cantuche, J. (2011). Factors affecting entrepreneurial intention levels: a role for education. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-010-0154-z

Liu, N., Hsu, W., Hung, C., Wu, P., y Pai, H. (2019). The effect of gender role orientation on student nurses’ caring behaviour and critical thinking. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 89, 18-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2018.09.005

Livingston, B., y Judge, T. (2008). Emotional responses to work–family conflict: An examination of gender role orientation among working men and women. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 207–216. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.93.1.207

Martiarena, A. (2022). How gender stereotypes shape venture growth expectations. Small Business Economics, 58, 1015-1034. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-020-00431-y

Mueller, S. L., & Conway Dato-On, M. (2013). A cross cultural study of gender-role orientation and entrepreneurial self-efficacy. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 9(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-011-0187-y

Passah, K., y Panda, N. (2022). A structural relationship model of gender-role orientation and entrepreneurial intention: examining the mediating effect of motivational antecedents in Northeast India. International Journal of gender and Entrepreneurship, 14(2), 167-187. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJGE-03-2021-0039

Perez-Quintana A., Hormiga, E., Martori, J.C., J. & Madariaga, R. (2017). The influence of sex and gender-role orientation in the decision to become an entrepreneur. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 9(1), 8-30.  https://doi.org/10.1108/IJGE-12-2015-0047

Powell, G. y Eddleston, K. (2013). Linking family to business enrichment and support to entrepreneurial success: do female and male entrepreneurs experience different outcomes? Journal of Business Venturing, 28(2), 261-280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2012.02.007

Prentice, D., y Carranza, E. (2003). Sustaining cultural beliefs in the face of their violation: The case of gender stereotypes. En M. Schaller y C. Crandall (Eds.). The Psychological Foundations of Culture (pp. 259–280). Erlbaum.

Rudman, L., Mescher, K. & Moss-Racusin, C. (2012). Reactions to gender egalitarian men: Perceived feminization due to stigma-by-association. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 16(5). https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430212461160

Shirokova, G., Osiyevskyy, O. y Bogatireva, K. (2016). Exploring the intention-behavior link in student entrepreneurship: Moderating effects of individual and environmental characteristics. European Management Journal, 34(4), 389-399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2015.12.007.

Steele, C. (1997). A threat in the air: how stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52(6), 613-629. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.52.6.613

The Culture Factor. (2024). Country comparison tool: Argentina, Colombia, Mexico, the USA. https://www.theculturefactor.com/country-comparison-tool?countries=argentina,colombia,mexico,the-usa

Vamvaka, V., Stoforos, C., Palaskas, T. y Botsaris, C. (2020). Attitude toward entrepreneurship, perceived behavioral control and entrepreneurial intention: dimensionality, structural relationships, and gender differences. Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship, 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13731-020-0112-0

Zampetakis, L. Bekatsaki, M., Kafetsios, K. y Moustakis, V. (2016). Sex differences in entrepreneurs´ business growth intentions: an identity approach. Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship, 5,29. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13731-016-0057-5

Zhao, K., Zhang, M., y Foley, S. (2017). Testing two mechanisms linking work-to-family conflict to individual consequences: do gender and gender role orientation make a difference? The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 30(6), 988-1009. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2017.1282534

Zisser, M., Johnson, S., Freeman, M., y Staudenmaier, P. (2019). The relationship between entrepreneurial intent, gender and personality. Gender in Management, 34(8), 665-684. https://doi.org/10.1108/GM-08-2018-0105

1. Phd Professor. Centro Universitario de Ciencias Económico Administrativas, Universidad de Guadalajara. México. Daniel.cruz@udg.mx

2. Docent i investigadora a la Facultat d'Empresa i Comunicació. UVic-UCC. España. anna.perez@uvic.cat

3. Phd Professor. Centro Universitario de Ciencias Económico Administrativas, Universidad de Guadalajara. México. a.campos@cucea.udg.mx